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This is a segment page of a larger web site (You may wish to see HOME or the Index at bottom of this page for an overview.) Biography: Noreen Renier TV psychic detective & the elements of a psychic charade Among worldwide psychic consultants, $10,000 psychic intuitionists, TV psychics, mentalists, and worldwide crime psychic detectives no one has presented the scope of claims of Virginia based Noreen Renier. Endorsed by business leaders, academic personnel, FBI and regional law enforcement officials, and dozens of media writers, we explore here the career and background of author and psychic Noreen Renier.
This revealing biography takes an in-depth look behind the media glitz and disintegrates a 30-year facade. While Noreen Renier claims she is sincere and a super psychic with real credible psychic criminology abilities, her exaggerated claims are extensive. At the most basic level her workshop and public claims of being extensively lab tested as a psychic and scoring "quite high in everything" are boldly untrue. In fact during what apparently was her most extensive testing under carefully controlled conditions, her psychic and psychometry abilities were found to be very different indeed. According to Dr. Harry Kloor who in 1985 was an instructor at the Southern Oregon State campus in Ashland, Renier "showed up on campus and proclaimed she was 'gifted.'" In 1994 at 31, Dr.Kloor became according to People magazine the first American to earn a remarkable simultaneous double Ph.D —in physics and chemistry—at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana. While he was still at Southern Oregon State College in addition to earning to BS degrees, he also earned two black belts in kung fu and kickboxing. This remarkable man convinced Noreen Renier to be tested in May 1985 by himself and others after she first reviewed an outline of the testing procedures. The testing on Renier at the Southern Oregon State College campus was conducted, reviewed, documented, and witnessed by more than two dozen actual on-site researchers and participants. During one test segment Renier was offered seven blood samples. Each of seven blood slides were prepared according to Dr. Kloor “by first being handled by the subject and then a blood smear was carefully taken and the numbered plate placed in a box." Renier agreed this careful handling of the blood samples and packaging by the actual blood donor was proper.
Also previous to beginning the testing Renier agreed she understood what the procedures were and that they were fair. She then agreed to attempt to properly match a blood sample to one of the six volunteers who had donated samples of their blood. In this particular test there was also a single "control blood sample" among the seven to help authenticate her claimed psychometry abilities. This "control" sample was the only blood sample from among the seven that Renier should have had left on the table after she had completed matching those of the six blood volunteers before her. Instead she picked up the box containing the controlled blood sample first and according to Dr. Kloor "in a somewhat theatrical manner she described the sex, age range, personal traits, etc. of the subject." She was clearly disappointed when no blood volunteer in the room sensed a match and cried Bingo! Unfortunately for Renier there was no shout by anyone because Renier's chosen sample did not match blood taken from any of six volunteers present. Even so, according to Dr. Kloor once Renier finished her detailed description about the student that she believed matched the blood "she demanded to know how well she had done." Dr. Greg Fowler, now an Associate Clinical Professor of Public Health, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland, Oregon and Executive Director of Geneforum.org was at Southern Oregon State College in 1985 and participated with the testing. When it became quite clear that Noreen Renier would not continue, Dr. Fowler revealed the identity of the blood sample to be that of a rat! According to Dr. Kloor, "To say the least she was not very pleased.” Even after additional testing was conducted on Renier --- including readings off objects previously selected from students --- it was found that Renier's actual tested performance was amazingly worse than random chance!
Indeed she claimed her psychic abilities during this period of time were "acute" and estimated her psychic sense to be 80-90 percent accurate. Since Renier previously indicated approximately 20% of some press materials she handed to media contained uncorrected exaggerations, the numbers don't match "acute". If one were to couple her exaggeration level --- which Merrell believes at her 20% value is an exaggeration itself that requires at least doubling --- with her Southern Oregon State College test values, any accuracy score for Noreen Renier might be tagged at 80-90% inaccurate! Today many of her claims about the airplane crash and how she located the plane have been scrutinized by witnesses and found to be riddled with fabricated fantasies. Even in the May 2008 edition of her book A Mind For Murder she repeats significant unfounded claims which we scrutinize on this web site. The background photo in the composite photo at left is uncredited and came from a poster published around 1997. A similar black and white version appears in the editions A Mind For Murder but also is uncredited. In Renier's vision during an appearance on Hour Magazine with TV host Gary Collins in 1988 she claimed that during one of her visions she saw "this enormous animal in front of me....It turned out to be a rat." Perhaps Renier's troubling rat vision came from memories of the blood slide that held the rat's blood during her testing and she now fears the "enormous" nightmare presence of a rat. For more than 20 years Renier has never publicly referenced her appearance on Hour Magazine and it remains conspicuously absent from her extensive web site media listings. Disclosure: The rat in the composite photo above and the black rat in the photo on the right are not visions. We'll leave it to web site viewers to decide whether or not one or both contain blood. Unknown to many TV viewers is that Noreen Renier is a former dinner theatre actress and lounge entertainer. In court testimony she stated that in the early 1970s she "created a dinner theater in Orlando, Florida called Once Upon A Stage." Later in a Virginia playhouse near Gordonsville, Noreen Renier was part of an entertainment program called Once Again Noreen and according to a fellow actor Renier entertained at the Barboursville Community playhouse. According to an interview published in 1981 by journalist Darrell Laurant, Renier also "opened, of all things, a night club act." But according to a fellow entertainer making a sufficient income was difficult and Renier decided to move on. Following her second divorce (her maiden name was Uzdavinis, and her first married name was Klincko) Renier lived primarily in Virginia and Florida. Noreen Renier is the author --- along with co-author Naomi Lucks --- of the 2005 book A Mind for Murder, and apparently the sole author of the 2008 edition. Removed from her new Acknowledgement page in the 2008 edition are the previous references to the "humor, patience, and intelligence" of her former co-author Naomi Lucks. Vanished as well are statements about her "eloquent and gracious agent" Ellen Coleman along with her previous editor Samantha Mandor at Berkley Publishing/Penguin Group. The release of the new A Mind For Murder edition in mid April 2008 comes after more than 50 references to skeptical critic John Merrell were removed --- and after a Washington federal judge ordered a judgment against Renier in favor of Merrell in December 2006 and in 2007. Renier's original publisher banished the original 2005 edition immediately following Merrell's lawsuit in December 2005. It appears they saw the court outcome a full year before "psychic" Noreen Renier saw it. The federal judge stated ". . . the record before the court shows that it is impossible that Ms. Renier breached the agreement in this case without some level of fault. She knew or should have known of the agreement, and breached it nonetheless." Born in Massachusetts on January 16, 1937 Noreen Renier has over her 30 year psychic career collected an assortment of academic and law enforcement supporters within the paranormal community. Pseudo psychic Noreen Renier has repeated many of her exaggerated claims during workshops and lectures, but she repeatedly skips discussing her courtroom events over the past 3 years. The Washington U.S. District court ordered a judgment against Renier and then an order for her to pay John Merrell nearly $40,000 after ruling in Merrell's favor in his federal lawsuit. Currently Renier's total estimated losses and previous debts on record exceed $141,000 as detailed in the breakdown of her cost and losses (click here) , and Merrell's filed claims have increased to beyond $55,000 as of early June 2008. Yet it's not just these recent judgments within the courtrooms that have peeked interest in former Court TV psychic detective Noreen Renier, but statements by witnesses that Renier fabricated "psychic" crime visions and clues she portrayed as true. In the mid 1980s, Renier issued a publicity packet which included the statement, "An optional trance is held in the evening with workshop members encouraged to make contact with deceased relatives, friends or famous people, and questions may be posed to 'Sing' and 'Robert,' Noreen's two main spiritual entities, who have something to say about everything!" And journalist Woody Greenburg quoted Renier as stating that "two entities work through me. A gentle Oriental, and a gruff no-nonsense personality named Robert." Renier confirmed this practice of mediumship just two years later in court testimony. She revealed her success in charging to provide her "entities" for people seeking information from those who had died. In a court deposition taken in 1986 Renier stated, "I know people who claim to have different names and different mannerisms through me while they are in an altered state of consciousness. I don't know [where] it comes from -- if it is my unconscious or some spirit, I don't know where they come from, I know the information is usually accurate that we get." [Emphasis added.] Questioned on whether her entities pass on information that they are receiving through people such as deceased husbands of her clients, Renier responded in court "Oh, they go get the deceased husband saying, 'We will bring him down,' [or] whatever." After this connection the deceased (according to Renier's testimony) sometimes speak through her entities. Under testimony Renier has claimed she was able to communicate with a friendly ghost who then stopped toilets and plumb Not to be outdone, Noreen Renier also initially claimed she had visions of intersecting towns with the initials H, D and A which determined the location of a crashed aircraft which "had mysteriously vanished from the sky." But after one critic noted H, D and A represented errors she changed her story saying her prior intersecting visions had been the letters G, T and O. And then she claimed it was a river instead of a town that corresponded to one of her three letters. And very recently she changed the angled intersections matching her visions of three letters from towns to counties and apparently tossed out the river. Nothing in her twisted angles and intersections makes sense and witnesses who actually found the plane never heard of Renier! Readers can determine for themselves just how much psychic bamboozle is behind this intersecting farce since complete and detailed facts are on this site in segment 7 titled 'Runway Part 4'. An index is at the bottom of each web page. Artwork above is from an unrelated political cartoon. Noreen Renier's interaction with law enforcement personnel has been quite informal at times during the past 20 years. Video footage shows the use of alcohol during some sessions and both video and audio recordings exist showcasing Renier portraying paranormal "body exchanges" including becoming the Zodiac Killer as well as assorted murder victims. A 1984 newspaper article by journalist Gary Kearns, published in Charlottesville, Virginia, noted Renier attempted to locate the bodies of a drowned father and son by "holding pendulums over the aerial maps" and then asking "the spirits of the deceased to enter the room. Ms. Renier told the class that if the pendulum swung back and forth instead of side to side, they were over the right spot on the map." In 1986 an Ashland Daily Tidings reporter (Ashland, Oregon) testified that Renier told him of "manipulating human energy fields." Moving towards new mentalist capabilities by the 1990's Renier claimed to have manipulated "animal psi waves" to solve a mysterious death of a horse near Greenwood Virginia. Yet skeptic writer John Merrell notes that the mysterious death of the horse as outlined by Renier in her book and during one public lecture was a very creative fantasy. Noreen Renier prefers using the title psychic investigator or psychic detective rather than psychic medium at times, but her work is deeply imbedded with claims of being a voice for the dead, and as a vocalizer for her own entities. But her claims don't end there. In her 2005 book A Mind for Murder she claims mentalist abilities in A newspaper article in the Lakeland (Florida) Ledger noted that the life of a psychic "according to her, can be a little unusual. She intimidates some people, such as opponents in billiards, where she uses her powers to block shots." On May 22, 1990, during a guest visit on the Joan Rivers Show, a young man (Robert Cardone) stood up and, following a mention of body scars, Joan Rivers then asked if Renier could see through his clothes. Renier grinned and answered, "Yes. . . . I don't do it too often. Are there any body parts you want me to look at?" Journalist Carol Shevis, on January 26, 1984, wrote in the Stanardsville, Virginia, Greene County Record that "in what might be considered the parlor trick category, [Renier] can make electric lights flash on and off at will and is able to lift or 'levitate' objects off the ground." She quotes Renier as stating, "There is no limit to what the mind can do." Merrell told a federal court that Renier maintained she has powers of electrical disturbance, including an ability to disconnect phone connections from hundreds of miles away. While taking a court deposition by telephone in 1992 Renier's end of the conversation suddenly went dead immediately after being asked a key question from an opposing attorney. Not surprisingly she never called back. "Renier previously told me of her amazing psychic powers of electrical disturbance with telephones, but in cooperation with the phone company I was able to determine that on at least one occasion she simply hung up her phone. The woman may fool some with this pathetic and childish game but not certainly not a telecommunication expert" noted Merrell in 2007.
In a court deposition taken in Oregon, psychic detective Noreen Renier stated that by changing her rate of psychic vibration she can heal. She recalled "some healing on a young girl and it was successful" and "however a person hurts, if they have a cold I would try to heal that, I could." Asked whether she could cure cancer with her "vibration process" she answered, "I feel I can help people, sometimes more successful than other times." Asked for a specific case of curing someone she stated in testimony, "A girl was going to have an operation and she had a cyst and it disappeared, and she didn't have to have the operation." Additionally she noted, "My father had a knee injury from years and years and he was in a lot of pain and when I became a psychic he visited me and he has never had a problem with his knee again." In addition the Orlando Sentinel newspaper on May 17, 1992, published an article by Charles Fishman in which Renier stated, "My two daughters were still young, and if they had a party, I'd practice levitating their friends." With the publication of her book A Mind for Murder in 2005 her claims about this event went further. On page 36 she wrote "I approached their friends and soon had a small group interested in levitation. I explained to them how it worked. One person sat in a chair, and two stood by her knees and two by her shoulders, facing each other. When they were in position, I stood behind the chair. After some deep breathing and practice synchronizing their arm movements, they simultaneously placed fingers under the girl's head, thigh, and arms. Before long, we were levitating each other with our fingers, and soon everyone at the party wanted to be lifted into the air." Levitation is defined by Webster's Dictionary as "rising or lifting of a person or thing by means held to be supernatural." Beginning in 1988 and for the next 14 years Noreen Renier moved on average to a new rental residence once a year throughout northern Florida and Virginia. From 1995-1999 various reports show Noreen Renier listing herself as the President of 'Encounters International, Inc.' located in Maitland, Florida. On September 25, 1998 she filed for a personal Chapter 7 bankruptcy which was granted in a Gainesville courtroom on February 18, 1999. For the last six years she has lived in Virginia in a two-bedroom log cabin in Free Union. Built in 1980 and owned by a California property owner, the 1680 square foot cabin is situated on 20 acres and features a satellite dish, fireplace and air-conditioner and sits amid forested surroundings. Due in part to the incredible scenery one estimated projected selling price on the home and its surrounding property tops $820,000 and the current assessed value of the land alone is $549,900. Yet interestingly in Renier's original Chapter 7 bankruptcy petition filed August 28, 2007 she listed her monthly rental fee for this homesite at just $500 and her total utility bills including water, electrical and heating at just $63. Her listed income for the entire 2006 year according on her original August 2007 bankruptcy filing was just $6,371 --- which she later revised after questioning to more than $50,000 while revising her income figures over 32 months upward by more than $100,000. How could someone be that far off --- particularly a woman who claims psychic foresight? Renier has long appeared with talk show hosts and noted the repeated psychic stabbing's she's endured. Over the past 20 years she has appeared on dozens of TV programs, including 12 recent episodes of the Court TV series Psychic Detectives. Her media presence has been extensive. Her appearances include the Larry King show, Good Morning America, the Nancy Grace show, CBS Inside Edition, Sightings, Geraldo, Hour Magazine with Gary Collins, America's Most Wanted, FOX News with Greta Van Susteren, the Joan Rivers Show and the discontinued Catherine Crier program.
According to skeptic writer John Merrell many of the claims made by Renier about finding a crashed aircraft and soaring in the clouds above Gardner Massachusetts --- claims explored extensively on this web site --- read like something directly from a Nancy Drew or Hardy Boys book. But it's not just the child like fantasies portrayed by Renier as real before the public that disturb skeptics but Renier's incredible leaps in reason. Noreen Renier's current web site includes a long listing of colleges and universities under the heading "Teaching Appointments" and "Adjunct Faculty Member". Among them are the University of Florida, the University of Delaware, and the University of Virginia. But Noreen Renier has never graduated from a four year accredited university or college. During one court deposition she could not even recall the year of her high school graduation or the name of her school. Nor has she ever been a faculty member at any of the colleges or universities listed. So what do the terms "teaching appointment" and "adjunct faculty member" mean to Noreen Renier? Webster's defines "adjunct" as "an associate or assistant of another" --- but these colleges and universities do not refer to Renier as a faculty assistant, or a faculty associate. Apparently Renier uses these titles on her web site to refer to any campus where she has presented non-accredited talks open to the general public apart from the sanctioned classes provided by the universities and conducted by approved faculty. Her talks are among those conducted by an assortment of people and often during evenings when regular academic classrooms are vacant. Skeptic writer John Merrell notes that "It's a remarkable truth twist. You sign a form and pay a user fee typically between $5 and $20 to rent an empty classroom for the evening. Beyond promising to straighten up the classroom chairs after your use there are no qualifiers that would eliminate holding a Cub Scout den meeting. You can book your own lecture about butterflies or even discuss Twinkies and cupcakes. From this --- it appears --- in the mind of Noreen Renier you become an adjunct faculty member with a teaching appointment from a major U.S. college or university in a matter of minutes. One might call that a remarkable exaggeration, but its just one among many." Indeed Noreen Renier also lists multiple universities under the banner "scientific testing" with no further explanation. Is she inferring that she is somehow involved? If so was she a "adjunct faculty member" in charge of the tests or perhaps an adjunct scientific test subject? Merrell notes "Perhaps these tests were conducted with other adjunct faculty members before they rearranged the chairs each evening. While credible schools are named she provides nothing of substance or clarity." Yet she makes incredible claims about her scientific testing. She stated "I subjected myself to five years of laboratory testing at PRF and at Duke University. . . in the test for psycho kinesis, the ability to influence physical matter, I was put in front of a computerized light system and asked to alter the light pattern by using my mind. I scored quite high in everything." PRF stands for the Psychical Research Foundation which was described by one critic as a questionable "crackpot bed" for poltergeist investigations in the 1960's. Others describe it as a 1961 program of the independent Rhine Research Center managed by a Dr. Roll to explore the question of survival after death. Supporters of poltergeist research coined the term "recurrent spontaneous psycho kinesis" or RSPK during their activities. Others however labeled RSPK as "Ridiculously Supported Psychic Karst". This refers to the Karst area of Yugoslavia which consists of a plateau with deep underground channeling, with no long-term supports. This channeling often collapses into muck with strong odors of decay --- much like the history of RSPK mentalist claims. Renier's claim for scoring high during psycho kinesis testing is equally disturbing. Claims of psycho kinesis are unsupported and refer to changing physical matter using only your mind. So Renier's incredibly bold claim --- one right out of the movies --- to have changed physical matter using only her mind might again be dismissed as difficult to prove or disprove. But fortunately Noreen Renier's claim included "five years of laboratory testing at PRF and at Duke University." Yet when inquiries were made no one could provide even a scrap of evidence that such extensive psycho kinesis testing or super psychic scoring ever took place. In fact just a few years after this extensive five years of laboratory testing supposedly took place Renier was asked in court to describe her claim about being tested at PRF and Duke University. Clearly taken back at being asked the question in a court room she admitted in almost a whisper that the testing "in conjunction" with Duke University took place in some department she couldn't recall, and in a year she couldn't recall, and that the result of tests being found as highly psychic was "one of the exaggerations" her publicist wrote up about her. And even though her claim to have "scored quite high" was a lie, what about "subjecting" herself to five years of the psycho kinesis testing? So during the same courtroom session in 1986 she was asked who it was she had worked with during those five years. Not surprisingly Noreen Renier was unable to recall even a single researcher or lab assistant --- not even a receptionist or student. In fact under oath she couldn't recall anyone by name who conducted the tests she claimed had happened at Duke. When asked if she could remember anything about them that would help identify these people her answer under oath was "No." And when asked again about the length of time for she participated in any testing in conjunction with Duke her answer was not five years but instead was followed by a pause and then almost silently she whispered just "two, three days." In early 2008 Merrell shook his head and said "Instead of her five years she dropped to just two or three days and still doesn't remember where, when or by whom. And she admits that her high-performance scoring was another exaggeration. Sorry, but I don't buy even the two or three days. Is her next admission going to be that the two or three days of testing occurred at the stroke of midnight during three full moons and the tests were conducted by ghosts?" Renier has for many years also linked herself to psychometry, a mystical claim that through touch or within proximity of an object a psychic can discern what has occurred in the past. In recent years its followers have included those who follow the fiction behind Star Trek Vulcan visions of the tistra noc. There are however perhaps a few dozen extreme paranormal mentalists who follow these practices yet have never been able to sense any unknowns beyond chance during controlled tests. Paranormal psychometry certainly makes for a great TV story, but it's on the same reality plane as flying pigs mating with visitors from Mars. Even so however Renier takes her own claims of psychometry to new dimensions. In her book A Mind for Murder Renier claimed to communicate with an old oak tree which allowed her to learn historical facts about the area, its emotional fear, and reference local geology. This incredible feat was done as "Dr. David E. Jones and the archaeologists had their tape recorders whirring and were taking fast and furious notes" according to Renier. Renier actually claimed she and the tree communicated back and forth to one another. Merrell notes "Renier often takes her claims right to the next level of disbelief. Touching a tree and sensing information wasn't enough. She went right to the claim that she had carried on an long and extensive conversation with a tree about the area around the tree and the history of the area as told to her by the tree. Assuming you believe trees talk and have memory I would have thought much of a tree's sensing perspective might come from its extensive roots below ground. But that doesn't seem to have been the case as there's no mention of the travels of underground insects, small animals, or even the flow of water and nutrients so important to a tree. But maybe that's underground psychometry and Renier is only capable of above ground psychometry. However this may justify a claim that Noreen Renier is capable of pseudo psychic psycho kinesis above ground psychometry!" This mix of psychic archaeology and tree psychometry is generally considered the best representation of "scientific studies" Renier provides since she at least has a name, though the results of Mr. David E. Jones have been dismissed by far more credible reseachers.
Virginia journalist Woody Greenburg noted Renier's "flair for self-promotion" including her claim that during a public performance in Miami "a chill came over the room" as Renier moved her hand in the air. According to Greenburg, Renier indicated that the more she waved her hand the colder it got --- finally resulting (according to her statements to Greenburg) in the audience asking her to stop! Yet during the same time period there is no evidence that Renier performed in Miami or that such an event ever occurred. Renier has repeatedly claimed that in a rape case in the late 1970's she saw a man who drove a truck that went "round and round." After being arrested it was learned the man drove a cement mixer truck. Yet one and one don't add up to the psychic bombshell this seems --- one which Renier has cited again and again with media. While the man did drive a cement truck, Noreen's own claim about telling anyone about the truck beforehand is completely unsubstantiated among those who heard her psychic session or reviewed her original statement for police. In fact Noreen never directly mentioned anything about a truck during her psychic sessions. Instead after drinking red wine and becoming somewhat dazed according to a law enforcement source she began drawing circles on paper. Merrell notes that "Whether she was repeatedly drawing the letter 'O' or the number zero, or perhaps paper plates, cook top controls, hub caps, coffee lids, Norelco razor heads, sink drains, bottle caps, eyeballs, or her favorite 1970's vinyl record --- we will never know. But weeks later when the man was identified as a driver of a cement mixer truck Renier suddenly identified her many scribbled circles as her foresight in seeing his cement truck. Yet this amazing bold leap has never been caught by journalists who have replicated her amazing claim for almost 30 years." In her latest revised edition of A Mind For Murder she actually claims she told the police that "the rapist is driving a truck with something on it that goes round and round." It is a thirty year old mindless fantasy that Renier continues to spread over an unsuspecting public. On April 25, 2004 Noreen Renier told Reed Williams with the Charlottesville Daily Progress that she can become the victim in a murder and even feel the pain of the killing. The article states "She has been stabbed multiple times in the head, shot with a shotgun, burned alive. That was the worst, being burned alive." Her claims span a wide field: Medium in contact with the dead. Mentalist stabbing's. Sight through clothing. Psychic billiard blocker. Electrical manipulation and phone disconnections. Human mind and sense transfer. Entity host provider. Psychic pendulum locater. Paranormal murder investigator. Gyurky horse psychic. "Nancy" ---girl detective. Changing physical matter and room temperatures with her mind. An adjunct Faculty Member. Paranormal child levitator. Psychic sensor of future events. Capable of above ground psychometry. Being burned alive and stabbed in the head. Psychic blood analysis matching. Locating a crashed plane using psychic visions. A psychic criminologist of a rapist vehicle. Scoring quite high over five years of scientific testing. Medical healer. And of course, psychic ghost plumber. Verified facts: A nightclub entertainer and playhouse actress with two personal Chapter 7 bankruptcy filings within the past 10 years who selects to charge thousand dollar fees to people during personal and emotional hardships. TBS Report Online --- Vol. 20 - No. 1 also provides some insight into this legal battle in an article published in the internationally acclaimed Skeptical Inquirer magazine by the founder of the Tampa Bay Skeptics Report. Noreen Renier is a media sensation but most viewers remain unaware of her repeated bankruptcy filings including her latest where her largest creditor was a skeptic critic who had won in a Washington federal court against her. This web site explores claims in the book banished by her publisher and Renier's history of exaggerations. Here we uncover an enormous and twisting charade presented to jury members and before millions of television viewers --- and to the readers of the 2005 A Mind for Murder book written by Noreen Renier and Naomi Lucks and the April 2008 revision authored and credited solely to Noreen Renier.
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